'Fundamentals of Geography Essay\r'

'In geology, a gem is a naturally sinkring solid marrow of maven or more minerals or mineraloids. For usage, the common agitate, granite, is a combination of the quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals. The undercoat’s satellite solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of quiver n roll. Rocks pay off been used by mankind throughout history. From the St wholeness Age endocarps make believe been used for tools. The minerals and metals we find in rocks have been ingrained to human civilization. [1] Three major groups of rocks atomic number 18 out depictd: ardent, repositoryary, and metamorphic.\r\nThe scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential comp singlent of geology. At a granular level, rocks ar tranquil of grains of minerals, which, in turn, atomic number 18 homogeneous solids hurled from a chemic mix that is arranged in an orderly manner. The aggregate minerals forming the rock ar held to personateher by chemic bonds. The ins tances and copiousness of minerals in a rock ar determined by the manner in which the rock was formed. Many rocks contain silicon oxide (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74. 3% of the worldly concern’s pertness.\r\nThis material forms crystals with separate compounds in the rock. The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their shout out and properties. [2] Rocks ar geologically sort according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the texture of the part particles, and particle size. These sensual properties argon the end result of the serve welles that formed the rocks. [3] everywhere the short letter of time, rocks gouge transform from oneness(a) type into an antonym, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle.\r\nThese events produce tether general classes of rock: fervid, aqueous, and metamorphic. The three classes of rocks be sub divided in to many groups. However, there are no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their constituent minerals they pass by every gradation into one an otherwise, the distinctive structures a standardized of one kind of rock may often be traced gradually conflux into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in establishing rock scripts merely correspond to more or little arbitrary selected points in a continuously receive series. 4]\r\nIgneous Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus meaning of fire, from ignis meaning fire) forms through the cooling and curing of magma or lava. This magma tolerate be derived from partial melts of preexist rocks in either a planet’s mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a variety in composition. Igneous rocks are divided into deuce main categories: plutonic rock a nd vol earth-closetic. irruptive or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizess scummyly inside the Earth’s crust.\r\nA common example of this type is granite. Vol tinic or extrusive rocks result from magma scope the surface either aslava or fragmental ejecta, forming minerals such as pumice or basalt. [3] The chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma naturally forms a duration know as Bowen’s reaction series, after the Canadian petrologist Norman L. Bowen. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale. [2] About 64. 7% of the Earth’s crust by saturation comprises of igneous rocks; making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorites and diorites.\r\n unaccompanied 0. 6% are syenites and 0. 3% peridotites and dunites. The seaic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granites and similar rocks, known as meta-granitoids, form ofttimes of the Continental crust. [5] Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them having formed at a lower place the surface of Earth’s crust. These have various(a) properties, depending on their composition and how they were formed. Sedimentary Sedimentary rocks are formed by sedimentation of particles at or close together(p) the Earth’s surface and within bodies of water.\r\nThis process causes clasticsediments or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate, or for minerals to chemically precipitate (evaporite) from a solution. The particulate be then undergoes compaction and cementation during diagenesis. Before being deposited, sediment was formed by brave outing and erosion in a source land, and then transported to the place of deposition by water,wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers which are called agents of denudation. begrime rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 o 15% (lime stone and dolostone). [3] About 7. 9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, darn the hang inder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%). [5] Metamorphic Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock typeâ€sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rockâ€to incompatibletemperature and pressure conditions than those in which the original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism; meaning to â€Å" flip-flop in form”. The result is a profound dislodge in strong-arm properties and chemistry of the stone.\r\nThe original rock, known as the protolith, transforms into other mineral types or else into other forms of the said(prenominal) minerals, such as by recrystallization. [3] The temperatures and pressures required for this process are evermore high-pitcheder than those found at the Earth’s surface: temperatures greater than cl to 200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars. [6] Metamorphic rocks compose 27. 4% of the crust by volume. [5] The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An encroachment of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphismâ€a temperature-dominated transformation.\r\n compress metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under the basis; pressure is dominant and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed sepulcher metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions. [2] Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess a texture are referred to as foliaged; the remainder are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present.\r\nSchists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas. A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness, with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock acknowledge slates, phyllites, and mylonite. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble,soapstone, and serpentine. This branch contains quartziteâ€a metamorphosed form of sandstoneâ€and hornfels. [2] In geography stages are one of the most important tools exploreers, cartographers, students and others can use to examine the entire Earth or a specific part of it.\r\nSimply defined part are pictures of the Earth’s surface. They can be general reference and show landforms, g everyplacenmental boundaries, water, the views of cities, or in the case of thematic symbolizes, show divergent but very specific topics such as the average rainfall distribution for an compass or the distribution of a certain disease throughout a county. To solar day with the increased use of GIS, also known as Geographi c Information Systems, thematic acts are growing in importance. There are however applications for varied types of general reference purposes when the different types are understood correctly.\r\nThese chromosome mappings do not simply show a city’s location for example; preferably the different map types can show a plethora of information to the highest degree places around the world. The following is a list of severally major map type used by geographers and a description of what they are and an example of to all(prenominal) one kind. • Political Map: A political map does not show any topographicalal features. It instead focuses solely on the state and national boundaries of a place. They also include the locations of cities †both large and small, depending on the detail of the map. A common type of political map would be one screening the 50 U. S. states and their borders along with the United States’ north and south international borders ( map of the United States).\r\n• Physical Map: A physical map is one that shows the physical landscape features of a place. They generally show things like mountains, rivers and lakes and water is always shown with blue. Mountains and summit changes are usually shown with different color in and shades to show relief. Normally on physical maps green shows lower elevations eon browns show high elevations. An example of a physical map is one showing the state of Hawaii (map of Hawaii).\r\nLow elevation coastal regions are shown in dark green, while the higher elevations transition from orange to dark brown. Rivers are shown in blue. • Topographic Map: A topographic map is similar to a physical map in that it shows different physical landscape features. They are different however because they use contour lines instead of colourize to show changes in the landscape. Contour lines on topographic maps are usually spaced at regular intervals to show elevation changes (e. g. e ach line represents a 100 foot (30 m) elevation change) and when lines are close together the terrain is steep.\r\nFor example a topographic map showing the Big Island of Hawaii would have contour lines that are close together near the steep, high elevation mountains of Mauna Loa and Kilauea (map of the Big Island). By contrast, the low elevation, flat coastal areas show contour lines that are spread apart. • mode Map: A clime map shows information about the climate of an area. They can show things like the specific climatical zones of an area based on the temperature, the amount of snow an area receives or average number of cloudy eld. These maps normally use colors to show different climatic areas.\r\nA climate map for Australia for example uses colors to show differences between the temperate area of capital of Seychelles and abdicate region in the center of the continent. • scotch or Resource Map: An scotch or resource map shows the specific type of economic a ctivity or natural resources present in an area through the use of different symbols or colors depending on what is being shown on the map. For example an economic activity map for Brazil can use colors to show different unpolished products of deed overn areas, letters for natural resources and symbols for different industries (image showing a map of Brazil). Road Map: A road map is one of the most astray used map types.\r\nThese maps show major and small highways and roads (depending on detail) as well as things like airports, city locations and points of interest like parks, campgrounds and monuments. major(ip) highways on a road map are generally red and larger than other roads, while minor roads are a visible radiation color and a narrower line. A road map of San Francisco, California for example would show the major highways as a wide red line and other large roads as a luminousness red with minor streets as gray (map of San Francisco). thematic Map: A thematic map is a m ap that focuses on a particular stem turn or special topic and they are different from the six aforementioned general reference maps because they do not just show natural features like rivers, cities, political subdivisions, elevation and highways. If these items are on a thematic map, they are background information and are used as reference points to enhance the map’s theme. An example of a thematic map would be one showing the population change of Canada in specific locations from 1996 to 2001.\r\nThe map shows the theme it is attempting to get across to its audience and uses a political map (e. g. one showing the provincial and territorial borders of Canada) to give it more of a reference. What Is the Difference Between hold and Climate? It’s a sweltering summer solstice day. â€Å"It must be world(prenominal) warming,” mutters someone. But is it the Earth’s changing climate that has made the day so warm? Or, is it just the hold up that is so unbe arable? brave out is the mix of events that happen each day in our aviation including temperature, rainfall and humidity. Weather is not the same everywhere.\r\nPerhaps it is hot, dry and blithe today where you live, but in other parts of the world it is cloudy, raining or even snowing. Everyday, weather events are recorded and predicted by meteorologists worldwide. Climate in your place on the globe controls the weather where you live. Climate is the average weather descriptor in a place over many years. So, the climate of Antarctica is sooner different than the climate of a tropical island. virulent summer days are quite typical of climates in many regions of the world, even without the effects of global warming. Climates are changing because our Earth is warming, according to the research of scientists.\r\nDoes this contribute to a warm summer day? It may, however global climate change is genuinely much more complicated than that because a change in the temperature can caus e changes in other weather elements such as clouds or precipitation. atmospherical circulation is the big movement of air, and the means (together with the smaller ocean circulation) by whichthermal energy is distributed on the surface of the Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the staple climatological structure remains slightly constant.\r\nIndividual weather systems †mid-latitude depressions, or tropical convective cells †occur â€Å"randomly”, and it is recognized that weather cannot be predicted beyond a fairly short limit: perhaps a month in theory, or (currently) about ten days in practice (see Chaos theory and solicit effect). Nonetheless, as the climate is the average of these systems and patterns †where and when they tend to occur again and again †it is stable over long-lived periods of time. As a rule, the â€Å"cells” of Earth’s atmosphere shift polewards in warmer cl imates (e. g. nterglacials compared to glacials), but remain largely constant even due to continental drift; they are, fundamentally, a property of the Earth’s size, rotation rate, heating and atmospheric depth, all of which change little. Tectonic uplift can significantly switch major elements of it, however †for example the jet rain cats and dogs -, and plate tectonics shift ocean currents. In the extremely hot climates of the Mesozoic, indications of a third desert belt at the Equator has been found; it was perhaps caused by convection. But even then, the overall latitudinal pattern of Earth’s climate was not much different from the one today.\r\nThe wind belts girdling the planet are organised into three cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the Polar cell. Contrary to the legal opinion given in the simplified diagram, the vast mass of the vertical motion occurs in the Hadley cell; the explanations of the other two cells are complex. Note that there is one discrete Hadley cell that may split, shift and intermingle in a complicated process over time[citation needed]. Low and high pressures on earth’s surface are balanced by opposite relative pressures in the upper troposphere.\r\n'